Contents Preface Part One: Introduction to Management and Cost Accounting 1 The scope of management accounting The users of accounting information The meaning of information Measurement theory The communication of information The value of information The decision-making process The management process The role of the management accountant in the management process Behavioural and organizational aspects of management accounting Cost accounting and management accounting Summary of the contents of this book Guidelines for using this book Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Key examination points 2 Cost and revenue classification Cost objectives Classification of costs Cost accounting: classification of costs for stock valuation and profit measurement Classification for decision-making and planning Classification for control Self-assessment questions Suinmary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Key examination points Questions Part Two: Cost Accumulation for Stock Valuation and Profit Measurement 3 Accounting for materials and labour Materials control procedure Pricing the issues of raw materials Treatment of stores losses Treatment of transportation costs Treatment of materials handling costs Just-in-time purchasing Accounting for labour Labour cost accounting Payroll accounting Incentive schemes Accounting treatment of various labour cost items Dedsion-making and cost control Self-assessment questions Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Appendix 3.1: Stores pridng methods Key examination points Questions 4 Accounting for overhead expenditure An overview of the procedure for allocating overheads to products Blanket overhead rates Procedure for calculating cost centre overhead rates An illustration of the overhead allocation procedure Predetermined overhead rates Under and over recovery of overheads Measuring capadty Significance of volume measures for control Significance of volume measures for product priring Overhead absorption rates and new manufacturing technology Non-manufacturing overheads Overheads for dedsion-making Overheads for control Self-assessment questions Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Appendix 4.1: Inter-service department transfers Appendix 4.2: Overhead absorption rates Key examination points Questions 5 Accounting entries for a job costing system Control accounts Recording the purchase of raw materials Recording the issue of materials Accounting procedure for labour costs Accounting procedure for manufacturing overheads Non-manufacturing overheads Accounting procedures for jobs completed and products sold Costing profit and loss account Interlocking accounting Contract costing Work in progress valuation and amounts recoverable on contracts Self-assessment question Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Key examination points Questions 6 Process costing Flow of costs in a process costing system Normal and abnormal losses Accounting for the sale of scrap Abnormal gains Opening and closing work in progress Previous process cost Opening work in progress Weighted average method First-in, first-out (FlFO) method Equivalent production and nonnal losses Equivalent production and abnormal losses Process costing for dedsion-making and cost control Batch costing Self-assessment questions Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Appendix 6.1: Treatment of normal and abnormal losses when they occur part way through the process Key examination points Questions 7 Joint product and by-product costing Methods of apportioning.joint costs to joint products Limitations of joint cost allocations for dedsion-making Accounting for by-products By-products, scrap and waste Defective units Self-assessment question Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Key examination points Questions 8 Absorption costing and vuriable costing Problem of terminology External and internal reporting Variable costing and absorption costing: a comparison of their impact on profit Some arguments in support of variable costing Some arguments in support of absorption costing The variable costing versus absorption costing debate Relevant costing Intemal profit measurement Current cost accounting Self-assessment question Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Key examination points Questions Part Three: Infonnation for Decision-making 9 Cost-volume-profit analysis The economist's model The accountant's cost-volume-profit model Changes in fixed costs and selling prices A mathematical approach to cost-volume-profit analysis Margin of safety Constructing the break-even chart Altemative presentation of cost-volume-profit analysis Cost-volume-profit analysis assumptions Cost-volume-profit analysis and computer applications Application of cost-volume-profit analysis to non-manufacturing dedsions Self-assessment questions Summary Key tenns and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Key examination points Questions lO Special studies: measuring relevant costs for decision-making Measuring relevant costs and benefits Quantitative and qualitative factors Deleting a segment Spedal selling-price derisions Dedsion-making and the mfluence of limiting factors Make or buy decisions Replacement of equipment Conflict between dedsion-making and performance-evaluation models Problems in detennining the relevant costs of materials Problems in determining the relevant cost of labour A comprehensive example Self-assessment questions Summary Key tenns and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Key examination points Questions 11 Activity-based costing Factors leading to the emergence of activity-based costing Limitations of traditional cost systems Activity-based cost systems An illustration of ABC and traditional product costing systems Impact of volume diversity Classification of activities Activity-based profitability analysis Problems arising with computing unit costs Resource consumption models A comparison of activity-based systems with dedsion-relevant costs An evaluation of activity-based costing Self-assessment question Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Key examination points Questions 12 Accounting information for pricing decisions The economist's pridng model Calculating optimum selling prices using differential calculus Oligopoly and perfect competition Problems with the economists' model Cost-based pricing formulae Limitations of cost-plus pridng Reasons for using cost-based priring fonnulae Dedsion-relevant costs for pricing dedsions Targct costing Spedfic products made to order Pridng reviews Choosing a pridng policy The impact of new manufacturing technology Self-assessment question Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Key examination points Questions 13 Decision-making under conditions ofrisk and uncertainty A dedsion-making model Risk and uncertainty Probabilities Probability distributions and expected value Measuring the amount of uncertainty Attitudes to risk by individuals Dedsion-tree analysis Use of cost infonnation for pridng dedsions under conditions of uncertainty Problems with using probability theory in dedsion-making Cost-volume-profit analysis under conditions of uncertainty Buying perfect and imperfect infonnation Maximin, maximax and regret criteria Portfolio analysis Self-assessment question Summary Key tenns and concepts Reconunended reading References and further reading Appendix 13.1: Cost-volume-profit analysis under conditions of uncertainty Key examination points Questions 14 Capital investment decisions: l Objectives of capital budgetmg A dedsion-making model for capital investment dedsions The theory of capital budgeting The opportunity cost of an investment Compounding and discounting The concept of net present value Calculating net present values Constant annual cash inHows The intemal rate of retum Relevant cash flows Timing of cash flows Comparison of net present value and internal rate of retum Modified intemal rate of retum Profitability index Techniques that ignore the time value of money Payback method Accounting rate of retum Surveys of practice The effect of performance measurement on capital investment dedsions Qualitative factors Evaluating investments in advanced manufacturing technologies Self-assessment question Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Key examination points Questions 15 Capital investment decisions: 2 A comparison of mutually exclusive investments with unequal lives Capital rationing Taxation and investment dedsions The effect of inflation on capital investment appraisal Calculating risk-adjusted discount rates Calculating a project's cost of capital Weighted average cost of capital Traditional methods of measuring risk A summary of risk measurement techniques Evaluating the lease versus borrowing decision Authorization of capital investment proposals Review of capital investment dedsions Self-assessment questions Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Key examination points Questions Part Four Infonnation for Planning and Control 16 The budgeting process Stages in the planning process Why do we produce budgets? Conflicting roles of budgets The budget period Administration of the annual budget Stages in the budgeting process A detailed illustration Sales budget Production budget and budgeted stock levels Direct materials usage budget Direct materials purchase budget Direct labour budget Factory overhead budget Selling and administration budget Departmental budgets Master budget Cash budgets Final review Computerized budgeting The budgeting process in non-profit-making organizations Incremental and zero-base budgeting Self-assessment question Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Key examination points Questions 17 Operational control and performance measurement Control systems Feedback and feed-forward systems CResponsibility accounting and cost control Flexible budgeting Non-financial performance measures Operational control and performance measurement systems: a summary Activity-based cost management The impact of new technology Control of non-manufacturing costs Control in non-profit organizations Management audits Management by objectives Operational control and perfonnance measurement in service organizations Self-assessment questions Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Key examination points Questions 18 Standard costing and variance analyses: l Operation of a standard costing system Establishing cost standards Types of cost standards Purposes of standard costing Variance analysis Material variances Material price variances Material usage variance Joint price usage variance Total material variance Labour variances Wage rate variance Labour efficiency variance Total labour variance Variable overhead variances Variable overhead expenditure variance Variable overhead effidency variance Similarities between materials, labour and overhead variances Fixed overhead expenditure or spending variance Sales variances Total sales margin variance Sales margin price variance Sales margin volume variance Difficulties in interpreting sales margin variances Recondling budgeted profit and actual profit Standard absorption costing Volume variance Volume effidency variance Volume capadty variance Summary of fixed overhead variances Reconciliation of budgeted and actual profit for a standard absorption costing system Performance reports Self-assessment questions Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Key examination points Questions 19 Standard costing: 2. Further aspects Direct materials mix and yield variances Sales mix and sales quantity variances Recording standard costs in the accounts Accounting disposition of variances Critidsms of standard costing variance analysis Variance analysis and the opportunity cost of scarce resources The investigation of variances Types of variances Simple rule of thumb cost investigation models Statistical models not incorporating costs and benefits of investigation Dedsion models with costs and benefits of investigation Empirical evidence Quantity variances Self-assessment questions Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Key examination points Questions 20 Behaeioural aspects of accounting control systems The use of budgets as targets The use of accounting control techniques for performance evaluation Partidpation in the budgeting and standard setting process Bias in the budget process Management use of budgets Condusion Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Key examination points Questions Part Five: Manufacturing Systems, Strategies and Technologies 21 Manufacturing systems, strategies and technologies: implications for the design ofmanagement accounting systems Altemative production systems Advanced manufacturing technologies Production management strategies Material requirements and manufacturing resources planning systems The just-in-time approach Optimized production technology Factors influendng altemative production strategies The influence of manufacturing systems and production strategies on the design of product cost accounting systems Product costs for dedsion-making Operational control and performance measurement Sununary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Key examination points Questions Part Six: The Application of Quantitative Methods to Management Accounting 22 Mathematical approaches to cost estimation Non-mathematical techniques Mathematical techniques Tests of reliability Multiple regression analysis Requirements for using mathematical techniques Problems that may arise when using mathematical cost equations A summary of the steps involved in estimating cost functions Cost estimation when the leaming effect is present Estimating incremental hours and incremental cost Leaming-curve applications Cost estimation techniques used in practice Self-assessment questions Sununary Key tenns and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Appendix 22.1: Partial table of t-values Key examination points Questions 23 Quantitative models for the planning and control of stocks Why do firms hold stocks? Relevant costs for quantitative models under conditions of certainty Determining the economic order quantity Assumptions of the EOQ formula Application of the EOQ model in determining the length of a production run Quantity discounts Detennining when to place the order Uncertainty and safety stocks The use of probability theory for detennining safety stocks Control of stocks through classification Other considerations Materials requirements planning Just-in-time purchasing and manufacturing Self-assessment questions Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Key examination points Questions 24 The application of Unear programming to management accounting Single-resource constraints Two-resource constraints Linear programming Graphical method Simplex method Interpreting the final matrix Opportunity cost Substitution process when additional resources are obtained Use of linear programmmg The use of linear programming in capital budgeting Practical problems in applying linear programming Application to other business problems Self-assessment questions Summary Key terms and concepts Recommcnded reading References and further reading Key examination points Questions Part Seven: Divisional Perfonnance Evaluation 25 Measuring divisional profitability Functional and divisionalized organizational structure Profit centres and investment centres Advantages of divisionalization Disadvantages of divisionalization Prerequisites for successful divisionalization Distinguishing between the managerial and economic perfonnance of the division Altemative divisional profit measures Retum on investment Residual income Determining which assets should be included in the investment base The impact of inflation The impact of depredation The effect of performance measurement on capital investment decisions Determining the divisional cost of capital Use of non-accounting measures Self-assessment question Summary Key tenns and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Appendix 25.1: Recondling short- and long-term residual income measures Key examination points Questions 26 Transfer pricing in divisionalized companies Objectives of transfer pridng Market prices Setting transfer prices when there is no market for the intermediate product imperfect market for the intermediate product Effect of cost-plus transfer prices Theuse of linear programming in establishing optimum transfer prices Transfer pridng conflicts Resolving transfer price conflicts Negotiated transfer prices Intemational transfer pricing Transfer pridng recommendations Surveys of company practice Self-assessment question Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Appendix 26.1: Economic analysis of transfer pridng Key examination points Questions Part Eight: Past, Current and Future Developments in Management Accounting 27 Past, current andfuture developments in management accounting practice The history of management accounting Management accounting research The gulf between theory and practice Critidsms of management accounting practice The future of management accounting Summary Key terms and concepts Recommended reading References and further reading Appendices Appendix A: Present value factors Appendix B: Cumulative present value factors Appendix C: Areas in tail of the nonnal distribution Appendix D: Capital recovery factors (equal annuity rate) Appendix E: Future value of fl at the end of n periods Notes Answers to Self-Assessment Questions Index Readers' questionnaire
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